Behavioral psychocorrection

The behavioral direction in psychological work has its origin in the works of D. Volpe and A. Lazarus (the middle of the 50s - beginning of the 60s), although its roots go back to the behaviorism of D. Watson and E. Thorndike.
There are three classic psychological trends at the core of this direction:

1. The works of D. Volpe, A. Lazarus, based on the ideas of I.P. Pavlov and S. Hull.
2. B. Skinner's theory of operant learning. Skinner.
3. Cognitive learning theory.

At present, three basic tendencies coexist in behavioral psychocorrection:

1. Classical conditioning, which goes back to the experimental tradition of I.P. Pavlov.
2. Operant conditioning associated with the name of B. Skinner and his modifications of behavior.
3. Multimodal programming.

1. I.P. Pavlov's classical theory of conditioned reflexes was the foundation upon which the modern edifice of behavioral correction was built. Based on the principles of classical conditioning such techniques of behavioral correction as the aversive conditioning technique, the stimulus control technique, etc. have been developed.

I.P. Pavlov was the first to answer the question of how a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus and elicit the same reaction as an unconditioned reflex, which runs automatically. I.P. Pavlov showed that the formation of a conditioned reflex is subject to a number of requirements:

• The first is the coincidence in time of the indifferent and unconditioned stimuli, with some advance of the first;
• repetition - a repeated combination of indifferent and unconditioned stimuli.

Thus, one way to manage behavior is to control the presentation of stimuli that elicit a certain response, as well as to organize the external environment and control it. By organizing the external environment in a certain way it is possible to shape a certain behavior of the person.

The theory of operant conditioning is associated with the names of E. Thorndike and B. Skinner. Skinner. In contrast to classical stimulus-response conditioning (S>R), they developed the principle of operant conditioning reaction-stimulus (R>S), according to which behavior is controlled by its results and consequences. Hence a possible way to influence behavior through influencing its results.

When using operant methods, behavioral outcomes are managed to influence the behavior itself. Therefore, special importance is attached to the stage of functional analysis, or behavioral diagnostics. The goal of this stage is to determine the reinforcing significance of the objects surrounding the client and to establish a hierarchy of their reinforcing power. It is possible to do this by means of direct observation of the person's behavior and establishment of a connection between the frequency and intensity of the behavior exhibited (the dependent variable) and the objects and events occurring in the environment at that time (the independent variable).

Operant methods can be used to solve the following problems:

• formation of a new stereotype of behavior, which previously was not in the behavioral repertoire of the person (for example, behavior of self-affirming type in a passive child, elements of joint play in a shy child, etc.), for formation of such behavior various strategies are used - "shaping", "coupling", "fading", etc;
• fixing (strengthening) of a socially desirable stereotype of behavior already present in the client's repertoire. Stimulus control, positive and negative reinforcement are used to solve this problem;
• reduction or extinguishing of undesirable behavior. It is achieved with the help of techniques of punishment, extinction, saturation, deprivation of all positive reinforcements, and response evaluation;
• maintaining a desirable stereotype of behavior in normal (natural) conditions.

Multimodal programming, or multimodal behavioral correction. In this direction the central place is given to influence on the holistic organization of the personality. Within this newest direction (A. Lazarus, A. Bandura, T. Neylance, etc.), which includes cognitively-oriented techniques of modeling and behavior formation, programs of self-regulation, cognitive self-regulation, and cognitive behavior modification have received development.

In recent years, this trend has been gaining more and more supporters. One of the latest achievements of behavioral psychotherapy is the removal of post-traumatic syndrome with bilateral saccodic eye movements. Discovered in 1987 (F. Shapiro), this method has proved to be well-proven in work with veterans of the Vietnam War, victims of violence, etc.

Modern behavioral theories of man are led by the notion that man is both the product and the producer of his environment. An essential difference from traditional behaviorism is its focus on real action. That is, a person is treated as an activist, changing reality through his actions. Not a reaction, but an action - this is the difference of the modern behavioral concept in its interpretation of man.

Within the framework of this approach, a number of behavioral modeling techniques have been developed with the help of which the following tasks are solved:

• building new stereotypes of behavior;
• extinguishing existing maladaptive stereotypes;
• facilitation of the manifestation of underrepresented stereotypes in the client's repertoire.

The theory of learning is characterized by distinguishing two phases: acquisition of some stereotype of behavior and execution of this stereotype. A. Bandura established that reinforcement plays an essential role not in the phase of acquisition of a stereotype, but in the phase of execution.

When learning by means of a model, the observer acquires a new stereotype of behavior that was previously absent from his or her repertoire. Observation of a model reinforces or strengthens certain behavioral stereotypes (observation of positive consequences of a certain behavior strengthens this stereotype and vice versa); increases the discrimination function of a stimulus with the character of positive or negative reinforcement.

In the behavioral direction, the concept of personality is not only undeveloped, but simply absent. The basic concepts applied to personality refer to its behavior. Therefore, the basic reactions to which the influence of the psychologist is directed are the person's real behavior in the real world.

All behavioral psychocorrection is directly related to learning. Therefore, the basic terminology reflects the basic concepts of learning. The basic concepts are as follows: "conditioning"; "generalization"; "attenuation"; "control-feeding"; "partial reinforcement effects"; "evoked emotional responses"; "avoidance response"; "conflict"; "excessive behavior".

"Conditioning." There are two types of conditioning:

1. Classical (Pavlovian), when learning occurs through a reinforcing combination of stimuli.
2. Operant (Skinnerian), when learning occurs by selecting a stimulus accompanied by positive (as opposed to negative) reinforcement. There is also unconditional reinforcement, which occurs outside of specially organized conditioning.

"Generalization." This concept reflects a phenomenology relating to stimulus and generalization of affect. In the early 50's C. Noble, J. Lacey and R. Smith experimentally showed that there is not only motor, emotional, but also verbal and also visual generalization.

"Attenuation. This concept reflects the patterns associated with the disappearance of reactions induced as a result of conditioning. You can trace the effect of attenuation, where by gradually reducing the unpleasant sound as the child approaches the animal, you can also record the attenuation of the induced fear reaction.

"Control-conditioning." The concept reflects the action of conditioning incompatible with the original conditioning. For example, a rabbit was placed in front of the child daily at meal times, which caused the child to be afraid, at a safe but decreasing distance each day.
The "partial reinforcement effect." The concept reflects the phenomenon of behavior in which reinforcement, although not constant, elicits the desired action. It is on this psychological effect that the action of playing machines is based.

"Evoked Emotional Reactions." The concept captures the phenomenon in which the presentation of an indifferent conditioned stimulus in combination with a painful unconditioned stimulus induces fear when the indifferent conditioned stimulus is repeated.

The "avoidance response." This concept describes the phenomenon of the disappearance of fear emotions when the subject learns to avoid the action of a painful stimulus.

"Conflict." Conflict refers to the contradiction between a need and the avoidance reaction associated with it. For example, the avoidance reaction associated with the suppression of a sexual need causes frustration and feelings of loneliness.

"Excessive behavior" (motor, emotional or mental) occurs as a type of avoidance reaction in which actions that were previously negatively reinforced are generalized or replaced by directing them toward another object. For example, having been burned by milk, you blow on water.

Behavioral correction is characterized by the following:

• the psychologist's desire to help clients react to life situations the way they want to, i.e., to help increase the potential for their personal behavior or to eliminate undesirable ways of reacting;
• No requirement to change the client's emotional attitudes and feelings;
• presence of positive relations between the psychologist and the client, which are necessary, but not a sufficient condition for effective correctional influence;
• the client's complaints are viewed not as symptoms of the underlying problem, but as meaningful material on which to focus correctional interventions;
• the psychologist and the client agree on specific goals for correction, which are understood so that both the client and the psychologist know how and when these goals can be achieved.

The goals of correction. According to the general thrust of the behavioral concept, the main goal of corrective influences is to provide new conditions for learning, i.e. to develop new adaptive behavior or to overcome behavior that has become maladaptive. The goals of corrective influences in behavioral psychocorrection are formulated either as training of new adaptive forms of behavior or as extinction and inhibition of maladaptive forms of behavior existing in the subject. Particular objectives can include the formation of new social skills, mastering of psychological techniques of self-regulation, overcoming of bad habits, release of stress, recovery from emotional traumas, etc.
The psychologist's position. In behavioral psychologically corrective therapy, the psychologist also acts in a precisely defined role of teacher, instructor or physician. In accordance with the fixed role, he or she should be ready to assume the weight of the social-psychological model and role model that he or she is in the client's eyes and also be aware of the specifics of the protective mechanism of identification playing an important role for the client in behavioral psychologically corrective therapy.

Requirements and expectations from the client. The role of the psychologist has a clearly fixed character. The client's role is also clearly defined. Activity, consciousness in goal-setting, desire to cooperate with the psychologist and improvisation with new forms of behavior are encouraged.

The most important moment is development of readiness to apply new forms of behavior. As correction is exposed mainly to the behavior of the person who has been treated, the task of correctional activity is to form optimal behavioral skills. And mental disorders of various types are considered forms of maladaptive behavior.

1. The "negative influence" technique

It is based on the paradoxical assumption that it is possible to get rid of a compulsive negative habit if one consciously repeats it repeatedly. According to Pavlov's principle of extinction, a conditioned stimulus without reinforcement leads to disappearance (extinction) of the conditioned reflex.

К. Denlap suggested a technique for getting rid of compulsive movements, tics, and some forms of stuttering, which consisted of asking a person to consciously reproduce unwanted reactions 15-20 times in a row.

If during the psychologist's conversation with the client (the theme of the conversation is free), if the client has an undesirable reaction, the conversation is interrupted and is resumed only after the client repeatedly consciously reproduces the entire set of reactions. For example, the client with a stammer is recommended to stutter specifically, repeatedly (15-20 times) repeating a word or phrase that causes difficulties. The client with compulsive movements is offered to repeat this movement for 10-15 minutes on purpose.

The first meeting lasts about 30 minutes, and subsequent ones - up to 1 hour.
If the credibility of the psychologist is high, the effectiveness of the technique increases.

2. The "skill therapy" technique

Proposed by D. Meichenbaum, 1976, is aimed at development of self-regulation and self-control skills. The author has developed a correctional program for change of behavior of impulsive, hyperactive, disorganized schoolchildren. The program contains a number of consecutive stages:

• Modeling. At this stage, the adult sets a problem and, reasoning aloud, solves it.
• Joint performance of the task. The adult sets the task and together with the child talks through the process of its solution.
• Verbalization of independent performance of the task. The child formulates the task independently, and, saying the solution aloud, independently encourages himself or herself ("I can do it"; "I can do it"...) and evaluates the achieved result.
• "Hidden" performance of the task. The child solves the task, saying the solution "to himself/herself" (solves the task in the internal plan).

3. Methods of behavior formation

"Shaping." The technique is used for step-by-step modeling of complex behavior that was not previously peculiar to the person. A chain of consecutive steps is made, mastering which leads to the final goal - assimilation of a new program of behavior. In this chain, the most important element is the first element, which should be clearly differentiated, and criteria for assessment of its achievement should be very clear. The first element is quite related to the ultimate goal of shaping, and the success of the entire program depends on mastering it, because it is the element that directs all behavior in the right direction.

To facilitate mastering of the first element of a desirable stereotype of behavior, it is necessary to create such conditions in which it will occur most quickly and easily. In particular, a variety of reinforcement (both material and social - approval, praise, etc.) is used. For example, when teaching a child to dress independently, the first element can be to draw attention to brightly colored clothes.

"Clutching." The technique is similar to the "shaping" technique in structure and is reversed in the scheme of formation of desirable behavior.

The desired behavioral stereotype is viewed as a chain of separate behavioral acts, with the end result of each act being the discriminant stimulus* that triggers the next behavioral act.

Formation of desirable behavior begins with formation and fixation of the last behavioral act, which is closest to the end of the chain, to the goal.

Exercises are continued until the desired behavior of the entire chain is accomplished with the usual stimuli.

"Fading" (attenuation) is a gradual decrease in the magnitude of reinforcing stimuli. When the client's behavioral pattern is sufficiently established, he or she should respond to minimal reinforcement in the same way as before. "Fading" is widely used in correction work with fears. One variation of the technique is that slides depicting a frightening object or frightening situation are used as stimuli in the beginning. Right after the presentation of stimulus slides, the client is shown slides that induce calmness. Such alternation continues until the level of anxiety caused by the appearance of the frightening object significantly decreases.

"Feeding" plays an important role in the transition from exercises in a psychologically corrective situation (together with the psychologist) to exercises carried out in the real everyday environment, when reinforcing stimuli come not from the psychologist, but from other people.

A variant of verbal or nonverbal reinforcement that increases the client's level of attention and focus on the desired behavioral pattern can be inducement. Reinforcement can take the form of demonstrations of this behavior, direct instructions centered on desired actions, objects of action, etc.

4. Methods based on the principles of positive and negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a stimulus that causes the client a positively colored emotional reaction and intensification of certain behavioral reactions.

Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus that causes a negatively colored response and therefore also leads to an increase in certain behavioral responses.
Neutral stimuli are stimuli that have no effect on behavior.

"Positive reinforcement. A person's behavior is guided and shaped by reinforcing stimuli, which can be unconditioned and acquired (conditioned reinforcing stimuli).

Unconditioned stimuli (food, water, a certain level of sensory stimulation, etc.) elicit innate responses, do not depend on prior learning, and their reinforcing power depends on the period of deprivation and increases with its increase.

Conditioned reinforcing stimuli are formed in the process of learning and are in most cases social in nature (attention, praise, affection, approval, recognition, positive evaluation, fame, etc.).

Analysis of a particular case, for example, the occurrence of hysterical reactions in the child, allows us to reveal situations in which there is an amplification or escalation of such reactions. As a rule, these are situations in which the child finds himself or herself in the center of attention. Observation of the child's behavior allows assessment of the value of other reinforcing stimuli.

Based on the data obtained, a specific hypothesis is formulated about the nature of the reinforcing stimulus. "Turning off" the reinforcing stimulus allows the hypothesis to be tested. However, it is necessary to keep in mind that after removing the reinforcing stimulus, there is always a certain period during which undesirable behavior increases in both frequency and severity of manifestation. At this time, the child "squeezes out" the reinforcing stimulus he or she needs from those around him or her, and those around him or her do not withstand the "attack" and usually go along with it. Accordingly, work within the framework of this technique is based on extensive involvement of the client's immediate environment in the correctional work.

"Stimulus Control." The aim of the technique is to teach the client:

1. To identify discriminant and facilitating stimuli in a real situation and identify conditions that increase reinforcement of undesirable behavior and avoid them. For example, linking different situations to food (for weight control purposes) - eating while casually meeting acquaintances, eating while watching TV, eating while walking, etc. - with subsequent elimination of these stimuli, i.e. eating only in a certain place and at a certain time.
2. Reinforce incentives related to desirable behaviors. For example, making a list of low-calorie foods and meals and teaching the client certain rules for using the list. For example, keeping a daily written record of the caloric intake of foods allows one to be even more consistent in reaching his or her goal.
3. Manipulate the period of deprivation without bringing it to the level of loss of control.

The mechanism of action of the technique is based on the position that the relationship between some stimuli and the reactions to them is rather rigid. The emergence of a stimulus allows the response to be accurately predicted, so by controlling the conditions of stimulus emergence and antecedent reactions, one can achieve behavior change with less time and effort than by controlling the results of the behavior itself.

The events preceding the behavior are grouped as follows:

• discriminant stimuli associated in the past with a particular reinforcement;
• facilitating stimuli that elicit a certain behavior. For example, a new hairstyle and a new style of clothing can facilitate a desire to communicate;
• conditions that increase the strength of reinforcement (usually a period of deprivation of a need, for example, a period of hunger).

"Quenching." The technique serves the task of changing undesirable behavior and is based on the principle of disappearance of a positively reinforced reaction. It is similar to the "Positive Reinforcement" technique and contains a number of stages, the most important of which is diagnostic, establishing the features of the environment that reinforce undesirable behavior. "Quenching" involves depriving the client of all positive reinforcements of a given undesirable stereotype of behavior. The rate of "extinction" depends on how the stereotype was reinforced in real life.

The technique requires a considerable amount of time, as the undesirable behavior goes through a period of initial increase in frequency and strength before it subsides.

One of the variants of the "extinction" technique is deprivation of all positive reinforcements. Isolation is considered the most effective way to deprive a child of all positive reinforcements; in real life, it practically boils down to social isolation. For example, the child is removed to another room alone, with the environment unchanged. Such isolation triggers positive reinforcement or means the stimulus is discontinued.

"Evaluation of Responses." The technique is also called a "penalty" technique. Its essence is to reduce the number of positive reinforcements for undesirable behavior.

The program is designed so that the reduction of certain positive reinforcements (and only positive reinforcements are used in the technique) cannot be easily replaced by other positive reinforcements.

"Saturation." The technique is based on the fact that even positively reinforced behavior tends to self-depletion if it continues for a long time (and positive reinforcement loses its power).

"Punishment." The technique consists of using a negative (aversive) stimulus immediately after the reaction that needs to be extinguished.

Aversive conditioning is resorted to in cases of antisocial behavior or habits harmful to the body (smoking, alcoholism, gluttony). In contrast to systematic desensitization, this method consists in a combination of an unpleasant influence or unpleasant condition with a situation which is usually pleasant. For example, if every time a drunkard brings a glass of alcohol to his mouth he will receive an electric shock, it is very likely that the satisfaction he previously received from alcohol will weaken greatly, and after several repetitions of such an experience - disappear altogether, and will be replaced by a conditioned reflex aversion to drinking.

The methodology of punishment uses mainly social stimuli, such as ridicule, condemnation, negative assessment of behavior, etc., while painful stimuli are almost universal and have almost one hundred percent impact, the effect of social stimuli is specific to the individual.

The technique is effective if the following conditions are met:

1. Maintaining a specific time interval between the response and the stimulus. An effect is observed if a negative stimulus is applied immediately (at intervals ranging from tenths of a second to several seconds) after the response. If the stimulus is delayed, its effectiveness begins to decrease rapidly.
2. The use of a specific pattern of negative stimulus application. At the first stage, the more effective suppression of undesirable behavior is achieved by constant application of the negative stimulus, and only after some time can one move to a non-permanent suppression scheme.
3. Presence of alternative responses in the client's behavior. This condition concerns suppression only of the behavior which has a goal-oriented character. In this case, since the goal keeps its meaning for clients, and the stereotype available in the repertoire of its achievement is blocked, in the absence of other "desirable" stereotypes of behavior, it often causes aggression or other forms of destructive behavior.

All this limits the scope of this technique.

The following methods of correction of deviant behavior in children based on negative reinforcement are used as particular techniques:

• "Time out" - removal from a class or group in which a child with deviant behavior is deprived of the opportunity to receive positive reinforcement connected with group activity. The removal technique is effective in correction of aggressive destructive behavior.
• "Hypercorrection" is an effective technique for correcting the behavior of children and adults who violate institutional norms. Its essence is that the individual first and immediately restores the order of things he or she has destroyed, apologizes in connection with his or her inadequate behavior, and then accepts additional responsibilities for preservation of the habitat.
• "Penalty" is a technique widely used in correction. It is only necessary to precisely stipulate the hierarchy of violations and the amount of the corresponding fine for the violation produced.

Behavioral psychocorrection also uses techniques of systematic desensitization; training (relaxation, emotional, behavioral, communication, etc.); immersion; aversive therapy; and symbolic saving or "token" techniques.

One of the advantages of behavioral correction is its short duration, which allows one to control the effects it causes. Methods of behavioral therapy are widely used for various forms of destructive behavior: smoking, alcoholism, phobias, stuttering, etc.

Psychologists using behavior therapy as a method of correction focus not on the reasons for a behavioral disorder, but on the disordered behavior itself. Many authors note the effectiveness of behavior therapy specifically in work with children. This can be explained by the following factors:

1. The ability to control the child's social environment.
2. Peculiarities of maladaptive behavior of children.
3. Relatively brief impact, which is especially important when working with children.

Д. Gelfand, C. O'Leary and G. Wilson believe that there are practically no age limits for conducting behavioral therapy. Cases of work with children of the first year of life are described. Many authors note a wide range of disorders for which behavioral correction is appropriate. Enuresis, fears, sleep and appetite disorders, attacks of irritability are particularly amenable to it. The effectiveness of behavioral therapy is shown for children suffering from hyperactivity, anolexia and enuresis.

A discriminant stimulus is a stimulus that precedes in time a particular behavioral response.